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Networking Fundamental


Network Definition:


                A network is a set of devices often referred to as nodes connected by media links. A node can be a computer, printer or any other device capable of sending or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network. The basic aim of networking is to be able to exchange data such as text, audio and video from one point to another in the world.

Basic communication model 


                The fundamental purpose of a communication system is the exchange of data between two points of parties. Depending upon the basic communication model, the figure given below shows one particular example, which establishes communication between a workstation and a server over a public telephone network.



Networking Fundamental



The above figure can be described as under.

i)           Source:- This device generates the data to be transmitted. Two examples can be telephone and personal computers.
ii)          Transmitter:­­- A transmitter transforms and encodes the information in such a manner so as to produce electromagnetic waves or signals. These electromagnetic signals can be transmitted across some sort of transmission systems.
iii)        Transmission System:- A transmission system can be a single transmission line or a complex network connecting source and destination.
iv)        Receiver:- The receiver accepts the signal from the transmission system and converts it into a form which can be handled by the destination device.
v)         Destination:- A destination takes the incoming data from the receiver.

Introduction to computer networks


                A computer Network is a collection of two or more computer and peripheral device(the network components) connected by communication links that allow the network components to work together which may be located at different location or within same office.  The network performs the following operations.
  • Sharing files and data
  • Sharing resources
  • Sharing programs
  • Communication
  • Backup

Types of computer network: According to distance covered by a network, or from geographical point of view, network is classified into three classes.

      Local Area Network(LAN): The computer network system that are confined within local area such as a single room, inside a building or buildings, complex, campus area etc. known as LAN. It a Local Area Network(LAN) is used to connect a variety of computers over a limited geographical

Advantages / Features of LAN:


i)        Data transmission rate is fast compared to MAN and WAN, which is about 100 Mbps or even more.
ii)       Installation of computer in a network is very simple.
iii)     It provides high security of data.
iv)     Dissimilar types of systems can easily be interconnected with the computers.

    Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): It is used to connect computers that cover an entire city. It generally doesn’t exceed more than 100 Km. This types of network consist of both bound and unbound media. It comprises of dissimilar system and computers with dissimilar operating system. It is relatively slow compared to LAN but faster than WAN.

Advantages / Features of MAN:


i)        It covers larger geographical area compared to LAN.
ii)       Dissimilar system can be integrated.
iii)     Supports both bound and unbound media.
iv)     It is very good in hosting FTP sites especially for internet.

     Wide Area Network (WAN): When computers are connected globally using both bound and unbound media, then we call it a WAN. The rate of transmission of data is relatively slow below 1 Mbps. WAN are characterized by the fact that they are owned by different organizations.  There is no central controlling system for WAN. WAN generally uses private satellites to connect large number of computers over a large geographical area. WAN is simply a LAN of LAN’s where different types of networks are connected.

Advantages / Features of WAN:


i)        It supports dissimilar transmission media.
ii)       It supports all types of hardware that vary from network to network.
iii)     E-business (E-commerce) has been possible just because of WAN.


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Factors Affecting the Success of E-Government


For successful E-government endeavor, two critical requirements are needed: availability and accessibility. E-government transactions have to be available 24/7. This provides citizens, partners and employees with the flexibility to process transactions outside standard government office hours. With the inclusion of websites of E-governments, and E-government website needs to satisfy this “high availability” requirement. Also, the E-government endeavor is critically dependent on the accessibility of its integral websites. If the website is not accessible to the intended target users it will not be successful. The causes of failure of the E-government program in developing countries are:




  •  Lack of training schemes and qualified staff, which makes it hard to go with such a new trend like E-government. 
  •  Lack of educating citizens about the value and benefits of E-government, that the government itself should play the main role in this issue. 
  •  Lack of change management efforts. 
  •  High turnover rates of government IT staff because of noncompetitive payment and employment conditions as compared to private sector. 
  •  Lack of public sector skills, and as a result E-government projects are often outsourced to the private sector. 
  •  Large design-reality gaps as a result of using and off-the-shelf solution from an industrialized country for a developing country. 
  •  The need of appropriate infrastructure that means that weak infrastructure will be the first obstacle in employing the E-government program. 
  • · The large gap between the skilled leaders who can afford technology, and the unskillful poor who can’t afford the same.

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Challenges and Opportunities for Developing a Successful E-Government

E-government initiatives aimed at raising the level of government performance in general, where the proper application of these initiatives lead to upgrade the governmental services provided to citizens and the private sector and enhance the effectiveness of government work internally, in addition to broadening the participation of citizens in decision-making process. However, many studies indicate that a large proportion of initiatives to implement E-government around the world did not succeed in achieving these promised goals. There are, in fact, global consensuses on the existence of the need for deeper studies to understand the real reasons behind this failure, but in spite of higher percentage E-government projects that failed to achieve its goals globally, the world is witnessing a comprehensive consensus recognizes that failed to achieve its goals globally, the world is witnessing a comprehensive consensus recognizes that there is still the possibility of E-government initiatives to fulfill their all promises, but the underlying potential of these initiatives will only be achieved through access to a better understanding of the obstacles they faced and therefore to work out ways to overcome these obstacles. The most challenges that are expected to be faced during the implementation of an E-government program have been summarized below. 

1. Infrastructure Development: All countries implementing E-government have struggled to develop a basic infrastructure to take advantage of new technologies and communications tools. Many developing countries, even if possessing the will, do not have the infrastructure necessary to immediately deploy E-government services throughout their territory. 

Recommendations: 
  • Develop projects that are compatible with the nation’s telecom infrastructure. 
  • Introduce telecom competition and lift regulation on wireless and other digital technologies to accelerate their deployment. 
  • Consider the government’s current use of technology and learn from past success and failures. 
  • Establish and action framework at the beginning of the process to allow for a rational and coordinated investment effort downs the road. 

2. Law and Public Policy: The application of information Technology and Communication (ICT) to government may encounter legal or policy barriers. Legislatures must ensure the laws are updated to recognize electronic documents and transactions. Policy makers implementing E-government must consider the impact of law and public policy. 

Recommendations: 
  • Consult with stakeholders to access how existing laws may impede the desired results. 
  • Give legal status to online publication of government information. 
  • Clarify laws and regulations to allow electronic filings with government agencies. 
  • Reform processes by simplifying regulations and procedures. 

3. Digital Divide: The digital divide is the gap between people who have access to the Internet and those who do not. Those without access cannot access information that can provide economic opportunities, and cannot share in the benefits of E-government. 

Recommendations: 
  •  Provide communal access through village computer centers. 
  •  Combine access with training. 
  •  Provide incentives to the private sector to donate equipment and training. 
  •  Emphasize local language and content tailored to different communities. 
  •  Use for-profit entrepreneurs to build and sustain access points in small communities. 

4. E-Literacy: E- Literacy refers to marginalized groups who are unable to make use of information and communication technologies because they are not computer literate. With the digital revolution there is a very real danger that the world will be divided into the “information rich” and the “information poor”. E-government has the potential of either equalizing access to government and its services or increasing the barriers to participation. 

Recommendations: 
  •  Ensure that content is in local languages and that interfaces are easy to use. 
  •  Develop applications that use speech or pictures in addition to, or instead of, written text. 
  •  Include and educational component in E-government projects. 
  •  Create programs that include traditional media, like radio programs or newspaper columns, where citizens can learn about E-government. 
  •  Special attention should be given to groups difficult to integrate (women, elderly, immigrants).

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Definition of E-Government

E-government is an idea raised by former U.S. vice president (AI Gore), within his vision of linking the citizen to the various agencies of government for getting all kinds of government services in an automated way, in addition to the completion of the government working itself depending on information and communication with network to reduce costs improve performance, speed of delivery and effectiveness of implementation.

Electronic government as government use of information communication technologies to offer for citizens and business the opportunity to interact and conduct business with government by using different electronic media such as telephone touch pad, fax, smart cards, self-service kiosks, e-mail/Internet, and EDI. It is about how government organizes itself; its administration, rules, regulation and frameworks set out to carry out service delivery and to co-ordinate, communicate and integrate process within itself.

Another definition of E-government was presented by United Nation’s website to be “E-government refers to the use of information and communication Technologies (ICT) Such as Wide Area Networks, the Internet, and mobile computing by government agencies”. While OECD noted that Electronic government refers to the use of information and communication technologies, and particularly the Internet, as a tool to achieve better government.

Maturity of E-Government

In the concept of government in general, as well as of E-government, we can distinguish between 3 groups’: citizens, business and services, and government and citizen, G2B denote the transaction between different government units. Most of the governments begin to provide information across direct on-line, but the public needs require quick more services and usually take this form gradually. E-government becomes more widespread; one is beginning to see the progress through six stages. Not all governments will reach all stages, and there will be much diversity within a government, with different agencies at different stages. The stages are:
1. Using internal network and setting up and email system.
2. Enabling inter-organizational and public access to information
3. Allowing 2-way communication
4. Allowing exchange of value
5. Digital democracy
6. Joined-up government

Implementing E-government is a continuing process, and most often the development is conceptualized in stages. The widely known maturity model suggested by Layne and Lee (Layne and Lee, 2001), who sees E-government as an evolutionary phenomenon, from which E-government initiatives should be derived and implemented. They assume four stages of growth model for E-government:

1. Cataloguing:
  • Online Presence
  • Catalogue Presentation
  •  Downloadable Forms
2. Transaction:
  • Services and Forms Online
  • Working Database
  •  Supporting Online Transactions
3. Vertical integration:
  •  Local System linked to higher level system within similar functionalities.
4. Horizontal integration:
  •  System integrated across different functions
  •  Real one stop shopping for citizens

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Classification of E-commerce by transaction partners

Following are the Classification of E-commerce by transaction partners.

i) Business-to-business (B2B)

     Business-to-business (B2B) is the exchange of products, services or information between business entities. Web based B-to-B includes:
  •  Direct selling and support to business: In which customers can by and also get technical support from the business.
  •  E-procurement (also known as industry portals): Where a purchasing agent can shop for supplies from vendors, request proposals, and in some cases, bid to make a purchase at a desired price.
  •  Information sites: It provides information about a particular industry for its companies and their employees. These include specialized search sites and trade and industry standards organization sites.
ii) Business-to-consumer (B2C)

     The exchange of products, information or services between business and consumers in a retailing relationship. Some of the first examples of B-to-C e-commerce were amazon.com and dell.com in the USA and lastminutes.com in the UK. In this case, the 'c' represents either consumer or customer. 

iii) Business-to-Government(B2G)

The exchange of information, services and products between business organizations and government agencies on-line. This may include.
  • E-procurement services: In which business learn about purchasing needs of agencies and provide services.
  • A virtual workplace: In which business and government agency could coordinate the work on a contracted project by collaborating on-line to coordinate on-line meetings, review plans and manage progress.
  • Rental of on-line application and databases: These are especially for use by government agencies.

iv) Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C)

 In this category consumers interact directly with other consumers. They exchange information such as.
  •  Expert knowledge: Where one person asks a question about anything and gets an e-mail reply from the community of other individuals, as in the case of the New York Times-affiliated abuzz.com website.
  • ·Opinions: About companies and products, for example epinions.com
v) Government-to-Business (G2B)

      The exchange of information, services and products between government agencies and business organizations. Government sites now enable the exchange between government and business of:
  • Information, guidance and advice for business on international trading, sources of funding and support, facilities.
  • A database of laws, regulations and government policy for industry sectors.
  • On-line application and submission of official forms.
  • On-line payment facilities.
This improves accuracy, increases speed and reduces costs, so businesses are given financial incentives to use electronic-form submission and payment facilities.

vi) Government-to-Consumer (G2C)

Government sites offering information, forms and facilities to conduct transactions of individuals, including paying bills and submitting official forms on-line such as tax returns.

vii) Government-to-Government (G2G)

Government-to-government transactions within countries linking local governments together and also international governments.


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Defining e-commerce

E-commerce is a new way of conducting, managing an executing business transactions using modern information technology. E-commerce is a ‘commerce based on bytes’. E-commerce, defined simply, is the commercial transaction of services in an electronic format. In general terms, e-commercial is a business methodology that addresses the needs of organizations, traders and consumers to reduce costs while improving the quality of goods and services and increasing the speed of service delivery. It may also be referred to as the paperless exchange of business information using Electronic Data Interchange, Electronic Fund Transfer etc. E-commerce is not only about simple transactions of data but also general commercial acts such as publicity, advertisements, negotiations contracts and fund settlements. It refers to all forms of transactions relating to commercial activities including both organizations and individuals that are based upon the processing and transmission of digitized data, including text sound and visual images. E-commerce is thus a business practice and involves use of computers, computer system or computer networks. 

      The World Trade Organization (WTO) Ministerial Declaration on E-commerce defines e-commerce as, “the production, distribution, marketing, sales of delivery of goods and services by electronic means”. The six main instruments of e-commerce that have been recognized by WTO are telephone, fax, TV, electronic payment and money transfer systems, EDI (electronic data interchange) and the internet. 

    EDI is the electronic transfer of standardized business transaction between a sender and receiver computer, over some kind of private network or Value Added Network (VAN). EDI was developed to integrate information across larger parts of an organization's value chain from design to maintenance so that manufacturers could share information with designers, maintenance and other partners and stakeholders.

    E-commerce has provided us a medium to facilitate commercial transactions in an efficient manner. Companies have moved up in the value chain by adopting the e-commerce practices. It should not be forgotten that every adoption of a new technology and new process would mean new ‘costs’ and ‘risks’. That is, adoption may or may not be successful. If the adoption is successful, then it becomes and established business practice in no time. If the If the adoption is unsuccessful then it is likely that the process of adoption may take some time, as the ‘learning’ phase is still not over. The first phase of e-commerce threw up a new business nomenclature using various permutations and combinations of ‘Business’ and ‘Consumers’, like ‘Business-to-Business’ (B2B), ‘Business-to-Consumer’ (B2C), ‘Consumer-to-Business’ (C2B) and ‘Consumer-to-Consumer’ (C2C).

What about E-Business?

As with e-commerce, e-business(electronic business) also has a number of different definitions and is used in a number of different contexts. Today, major corporations are rethinking their businesses in terms of the Internet an its new culture and capabilities and this is what some see as e-business.


E-business is the conduct of business on the Internet, not only buying and selling but also servicing customers and selling but also servicing customers and collaborating wit business partners.

E-business includes customer service (e-service) and intra-business tasks.

E-business is the transformation of key business process through the use of Internet technologies. An e-business is a company that can adapt to constant and continual change.


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Systems Development


Introduction:

Systems development is the process of defining, designing, testing, and implementing a new software application or program.  It could include the internal development of customized systems, the creation of database systems, or the acquisition of third party developed software. Written standards and procedures must guide all information systems processing functions. The organization’s management must define and implement standards and adopt an appropriate system development life cycle methodology governing the process of developing, acquiring, implementing, and maintaining computerized information systems and related technology.


Examination Objectives:

Determine if the board and management have established and maintained effective systems development methodology. This is accomplished through the following examination objectives:

• Board and Management Oversight – Assess the adequacy of systems development oversight by examining related policies, procedures, and methodology.

• Risk Assessment—determine the level of systems development activities existing within the institution.  If systems development activities for mission-critical systems are handled primarily through a service provider, evaluate management’s due diligence to ensure appropriate documentation and controls exist within the service provider’s development processes.  Assess the adequacy of the institution’s risk assessment process for systems development.

• Internal Controls—Evaluate the effectiveness of preventive and detective controls designed to identify material deficiencies on a timely basis. The internal audit function should identify systems development as an area for evaluation and review.


Feasibility studies

Feasibility studies aim to objectively and rationally uncover the strengths and weaknesses of an existing business or proposed venture, opportunities and threats as presented by the environment, the resources required to carry through, and ultimately the prospects for success. In its simplest terms, the two criteria to judge feasibility are cost required and value to be attained. As such, a well-designed feasibility study should provide a historical background of the business or project, description of the product or service, accounting statements, details of the operations and management, marketing research and policies, financial data, legal requirements and tax obligations. Generally, feasibility studies precede technical development and project implementation.

Technical feasibility

The assessment is based on an outline design of system requirements in terms of Input, Processes, Output, Fields, Programs, and Procedures. This can be quantified in terms of volumes of data, trends, frequency of updating, etc. in order to estimate whether the new system will perform adequately or not. Technological feasibility is carried out to determine whether the company has the capability, in terms of software, hardware, personnel and expertise, to handle the completion of the project. When writing a feasibility report the following should be taken to consideration:

  • A brief description of the business to assess more possible factor/s which could affect the study 

  •  The part of the business being examined 

  •  The human and economic factor 

  •  The possible solutions to the problems 

At this level, the concern is whether the proposal is both technically and legally feasible (assuming moderate cost).



Economic feasibility

Economic analysis is the most frequently used method for evaluating the effectiveness of a new system. More commonly known as cost/benefit analysis, the procedure is to determine the benefits and savings that are expected from a candidate system and compare them with costs. If benefits outweigh costs, then the decision is made to design and implement the system. An entrepreneur must accurately weigh the cost versus benefits before taking an action.

Cost-based study: It is important to identify cost and benefit factors, which can be categorized as follows: 1. Development costs; and 2. Operating costs. This is an analysis of the costs to be incurred in the system and the benefits derivable out of the system.

Time-based study: This is an analysis of the time required to achieve a return on investments. The future value of a project is also a factor.

Operational feasibility

Operational feasibility is a measure of how well a proposed system solves the problems, and takes advantage of the opportunities identified during scope definition and how it satisfies the requirements identified in the requirements analysis phase of system development.




How to Talk to Users [for analyst members of a JAD team]


●      Encourage users to speak up. Don't assume they understand that they carry equal authority on the team.
●      Ask probing questions about how users do their work, even about points that seem obvious. Ask why they so something as well as "what" and "how."
●      Do state the obvious (once, at least). Don't assume that something is "common knowledge."
●      Ask for clarification. Don't assume you are the only one confused. If users start talking office-lingo, bring them gently back down to Earth.
●      Restate the user's points in your own words to make sure you understand each other.
●      Avoid technical explanations and computer jargon. if you must use technical terminology, provide a list of terms and definitions.
●      Mention problems that you see when you see them. Don't assume that users are not mentioning something because it's okay.
●      Be clear about your schedule for implementing features. Provide frequent opportunities to reevaluate and discuss the "to do " list.
●      Make a distinction between features which will not be implemented because they are technically impossible and those for which there simply isn't time. Be gentle when dealing with ideas which are impractical.
●      Be open to ideas and maintain a non-judgmental stance.

 

How to Talk to Analysts [for user members of a JAD team]


●      Don't be bashful. Analysts on the team are counting on you to tell what you know and to correct their misconceptions and oversights.
●      Help the analyst to understand how your work is done. Provide a context for your remarks. Give examples.
●      Ask for the features you need to do your work. Don't assume that your needs are unimportant or impossible to meet.
●      Ask for the features that make your work easier, even in small ways.
●      Make a distinction between features you must have and those that would be nice for you. Set priorities and make them clear to the analyst
●      Do state the obvious (once, at least). Don't assume that something you know is "common knowledge."
●      Ask for clarification. Don't assume that you are the only one confused. If an analyst starts talking " computerate," bring them gently back down to Earth.
●      Restate the analyst's points in your own words to make sure you understand each other.
●      Mention problems that you see when you see them. Don't assume problems will " get worked out later."
●      Discuss needs you will have after the system is finished. Plan ahead for working independently once the analyst has gone on to other projects. 

●   Be open to ideas and maintain a non-judgmental stance.



How do you know if your JAD is successful?


After creating Joint Application Development (JAD) team and managing it for any project to complete, you have to know if your JAD is successful or not. Here are some methods from which you will able to know about your JAD success. 

By applying the positive answers for the following questions.

● Are your meetings well attended?

● Are all affected parties involved/aware of decisions being made?

● Did you solve the true underlying problem?

● Is your solution accepted and used by your clients?

● Is the solution available on time?

By applying the following Success Factors

● A clear purpose shared by all team members - the project charter

● A diverse team, representative of all areas effected by this project.

● Every person in the group has equal responsibility and decision making power.

● Every idea is valuable. Throughout the JAD, listen and acknowledge each idea and concern. Evaluating ideas during a brainstorming session will shut down the creative process. The best idea may never get said out of fear of being shot down.

● Participation by everyone is very important. Encourage quieter members to speak, they often have the best ideas. Don't allow 1 or 2 members to dominate. This is the facilitators responsibility as well as the whole teams' responsibility.

● Listen when others speak, don't interrupt or talk while others are talking (side conversations may have great ideas...we don't want to miss them).

● Maintain a parking lot to record important issues that are not within the scope of this project.

● Don't hold meetings, just to hold meetings. Only meet when there is something substantial to talk about.

● Don't let more than 3 or 4 weeks pass between meetings, you will loose momentum. Remember, each meeting is a motivation for the team to complete tasks assigned. It is no fun to come to a meeting and admit you didn't finish your task.

● Decisions are reached by consensus. We are here to create a win/win solution...win/lose solutions aren't good enough. You can reach consensus by giving everyone three options:

○ Thumbs up - I agree

○ Thumbs down - I disagree

○ Thumbs sideways - I can support this idea


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Roles of JAD Group Members


The roles of JAD group members as a project sponsor, project leader, timekeeper and clients are described below.

Project Sponsor - remember, this is the person who owns the business process. Their support and participation is crucial to the success of the JAD. In addition to the project responsibilities listed below, the project sponsor and the lead analyst can share the role of Project Leader, being equally responsible for the successful completion of the JAD. 

Project Sponsor Responsibilities 

● ensure the right clients are part of the group 

● ensure there is enough technical staff support for the project 

● ensure that software/hardware is purchased as needed for the project 

● ensure that the clients are given time off from their regular work to attend the JAD meetings and to perform the tasks they are assigned by the JAD (policy research, gathering information / opinions from other client groups, documentation, testing) 

● assign and work on policy research 

● delegate tasks to clients who are in the group 

● ensure that the client tasks are done 

● assist in the selection of test cases 

● assist in the definition of the scope and functionality 

● assist in benchmarking against current systems and external systems 

● help set up quality measures 

● evaluate whether the system is effective and efficient 

Project Leader - the project leader can make or break the project. They need to be committed wholeheartedly to the project, and to have a background knowledge of the business area and current or related information systems. They also need to be committed to The University, and to understand the implications of the project within the context of University goals. They need to be enthusiastic and objective. They need to be sensitive to political issues and able to draw out the opinions of the quiet members of the group, and to not allow any single individual to dominate the group. 

Project Leader Responsibilities 

● work with project sponsor to ensure the right people are in the group 

● ensure all roles for the group are filled 

● ensure that meetings are scheduled and publicized with agendas 

● ensure that agendas are planned and followed 

● ensure that meeting notes are taken, and published by the record keeper 

● edit the notes and make sure they are not a transcript but a concise accurate summary of decisions made (both pro and con) and issues discussed and actions to do (make sure they are available historically if a new member has to join in the middle of a project) 

● ensure that tasks are assigned and done, and that a task list is planned and executed in the sequence that it needs to be, with appropriate timelines 

● coordinate the technical efforts of the analysts on the team 

● do research prior to the meetings to make sure background information is gathered on the appropriate agenda topics 

● facilitate the meetings effectively 

Record Keeper - The record keeper takes comprehensive notes during a session, and then edits them into a concise summary of discussions and decisions. It is important that the resulting notes NOT be transcription of who said what. The role can be shared by various members of the team as needed. Often a well-facilitated meeting will have a note taking record keeper, and also someone who records points on an easel pad. The easel pad serves as a ready reference to the group when summarizing discussions, and for return reference on complex points. And it also is a means for the record keeper to evaluate the accuracy and thoroughness of their notes. 

Record Keeper Responsibilities 

● take accurate and thorough notes during the meeting 

● ask for clarification on points if anything is not clear 

● summarize and condense the notes after the session 

● ensure that the JAD leader and project sponsor or other relevant people proof and edit the notes prior to publishing 

● publish the notes for all current members of the team and for any other interested parties 

● keep a history of the notes for the benefit of any members who join the team in mid-project 

● remind the group if they contradict earlier decisions and make sure they know they are in contradiction. 

Timekeeper - The Timekeeper is responsible for keeping the meeting running on time and helping the group use time wisely. 

Timekeeper Responsibilities 

● makes sure the meeting begins and ends on time 

● help the meeting stay on time for each topic on the agenda 

● reminds the group that they need to end a discussion in order to have time to summarize and create an action plan in the final minutes of the meeting 

Clients - Clients are here because this is a system they use. They understand how this system is used in the real world. They will help the group understand all the tasks handled by the system, correct any misperceptions, search for oversights and supply details. Remember, no detail is too small to mention. Sometimes minor details make a major difference in the way the system should work. 

Typical Client Responsibilities 

● describe the sequence of events in a business process as it affects their office 

● describe the decisions that have to be made in a business process 

● define the information that the process has to deal with 

● define what is critical vs. what would be nice for the first version of the system 

● bring up any problems that exist in the current process or any opportunities for making it more efficient 

● research policy questions when a new business procedure is being proposed 

● analyze if there are any obstacles to success in the current environment of their office for implementing the new system 

● create test cases for testing 

● run test scripts on the cases 

● give the developers feedback on the usability and accuracy and effectiveness of the system in an organized, documented way 

● help prepare documentation on how the system works from a client's point of view 

● help prepare and implement training for other clients 

All Team Members - have the following responsibilities: 

● Commitment to the team 

● Regular attendance 

● Actively listen 

● Actively participate 

● Identify concerns 

● Brainstorm ideas 

● Recommend solutions 

● Agree upon a design by consensus 

● Assist with project duties 


Who is involved in a JAD?


The persons who are involved in JAD are sponsor, business users, real end users, system analysts and are described below.


Sponsor - this is the executive who charters the project, the system owner. They must be high enough in the organization to be able to make decisions and provide the necessary resources and support for the project. 


Business Users - the intended users of the system being designed. They are here because of their business expertise. There are two kinds of Business Users; Real End Users and Big Picture Users.


Real End Users will have to use the new system to do their jobs. Big Picture Users understand the standards and methodologies of the business functions. It is important to have both types of users, if you only have Big Picture Users you will end up with a great theoretical model of how things should work, but it may not work in practice, if you just have Real End Users, you will get a good system for today, but it may not work a year or two down the road. 


Systems Analysts - Provide non-technical explanations that help other JAD members understand and fully utilize the technology available. Monitor design for ease of use/maintenance and adherence to standards. Provide Hardware/software development.



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